Each participant’s overall health status was evaluated using the Health Utilities Index Mark 3 (HUI3) – a generic, multi-attribute utility measure of health-related quality of life. Because people with diabetes have a substantial illness burden directly related the disease itself, its treatment, complications and the comorbid medical conditions that are prevalent in diabetes, a generic health measure was used to capture overall health.
The HUI3 includes eight attributes of health-related quality of life, including: vision, hearing, speech, ambulation, dexterity, emotion, cognition, and pain.25 and 26 The overall score for the HUI3 was calculated using a multi-attribute utility function, with scores ranging from –0.36 to 1.0. Negative scores are assigned to health states that are considered to be worse Ulixertinib cost than dead, a score selleck inhibitor of zero reflects the health state dead and 1.0 reflects perfect health (full function on all eight attributes of the HUI3). A difference of at least 0.03 was considered to be a meaningful change for the HUI3. Construct validity of
the HUI3 in type-2 diabetes and in people with osteoarthritis has been reported previously. 27, 28 and 29 The HUI3 is also valid in people who need a total hip arthroplasty due to osteoarthritis. 29 The Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) was used to screen for depressive symptoms. The scale has 20 items and each item is scored on a 4-point ordinal level,
which generates a total score with a range from 0 to 60.30 The CES-D has good internal consistency with an alpha of 0.85 in the general population and has satisfactory test-retest reliability.31 Participants were categorised into two groups: 0 to 15 indicated absent depressive symptoms, and 16 or higher indicated depressive symptoms.30 Using this threshold had high sensitivity (100%) and specificity (88%) for depression in the previous month in a Resminostat community-based sample of older adults between the ages of 55 and 85 years.32 To evaluate social support, participants completed the 19-item Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Survey (MOS),33 which includes items related to tangible support, affection, positive social interaction, and emotional or informational support. The total score is a weighted average of all items, rescaled to range from 0 to 100, with higher scores representing greater available social support. Comorbid conditions were identified from a list of predefined comorbid conditions obtained from the Charlson Comorbidity Index34 and the Canadian National Population Health Survey.35 No gold standard exists regarding the measurement of comorbidity.